Education in South Africa

The Department of Education
South Africa has a single national education system which is organized and managed largely on the basis of nine provincial subsystems.
The Constitution has vested substantial powers in the provincial legislatures and governments to run educational affairs (other than universities and technikons) subject to a national policy framework.In terms of
the Constitution, the national Department of Education is responsible for matters that cannot be regulated effectively by provincial legislation, and also for matters that need to be coordinated in terms of norms and standards at a national level. It has to prepare government policy on education and training for the country as a whole.
Relations with provincial departments of education are guided by national policy, within which the provincial departments have to set their own priorities and implementation programmes. The Department’s role is to promote the translation of the education and training policies of the Government and the provisions of the Constitution into a national framework.
The national Department provides active assistance to provincial departments in strengthening their administrative and professional capacity. Co-operative government is the theme of national-provincial relations.
Council of Education Ministers
This Council, consisting of the Minister of Education, the Deputy Minister of Education and the nine provincial Executive Council Members for Education, meets regularly to discuss national education policy, share information and views on all aspects of education in South Africa, and coordinate action on matters of mutual interest.
Tags:Foreign Education,Education in South Africa

Education in Bangladesh | Bangladesh Education System

EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH
Education in Bangladesh is is three-tiered and highly subsidzed.The government of Bangladesh operates
 many schools in the primary,secondary, and higher  secondary  levels.It also subsidize parts of the
funding for many private schools. In the tertiaryeducation sector,the government also funds more than
15 state universities through the University Grants Commission.Bangladesh conforms fully to the

Education For All (EFA) objectives, the Millennium Development Goals(MDG) and international
declarations.Article 17 of the Bangladesh constitution provides that all children between the ages of six
and ten years receive a basic education free of charge.
Educational systems in Bangladesh, ordered by decreasing student numbers, are :
1.             General Education System
2.             Madrasah Educational System
3.             Technical - Vocational Education System
Other systems include a Professional Education System
Each of these three main systems is divided into four levels :

1.             Primary Level (years 1 to 5)
2.             Secondary Level (years 6 to 10)
3.             Higher Secondary Level (years 11 to 12)
4.             Tertiary Level
Tertiary education in Bangladesh takes place at 34 government and 54 private universities.Students can choose to further their education in engineering, education in technology,education in agriculture,
education in medicine at a variety of universities and colleges.At all levels of schooling, students can
choose to receive their education in English or  Bengali. private schools tend to make use of
English-based study media while government –sponspored schools use Bengali.Cadet colleges are
important in the education system of Bangladesh. A cadet college is a special type of school-cum-college
established in East Pakistan on the model of English  public schools. Military education is a compulsary
at cadet college. The government of Pakistan established the first residential cadet college in the Punjab
in 1954. Faujdarhat cadet college was the first cadet college in East Pakistan (Bangladesh), established
in 1958 over an area of 185 acres of land  at Faujdarhat is the district of Chittagong. At present there
are 12 cadet colleges in Bangladesh.The Madrasah Education system focuses on religious education,
teaching all the basic of education in a religious environment . Islamic teachings are compulsory.
Religious  studies are taught in Arabic and the children also usually serve the related mosques.Students
also study  some or all of the courses from the General Education System.Madrasahs take in many
homeless children and provide them food, shelter, and education, e.g. Jamia Tawakkulia Rengs Madrasah
in Sylhet.The Technical and Vocational Esucation System provides courses related to various applied and practical areas in education of science and technology, education in engineering, or focuses on a specific
specialized area. Course duration ranges from one month to four years.Tertiary Education in Madrasah
Education System In Madrasah Education  System, after passing "Alim" (12th Grade),student can enroll
in for 2 years long study, for obtaining a "Fazil" level (14th Grade) as well as they can go for further
general education like earning all over the universities degree, and after passing "Kalim" level
(16th Grade) degree.
Tertiary Education in Technical Education
System
In the Education System, after obtaining Diploma-in-Engineering degree
(four years long curriculum), students can further purse their educational
carrier for obtaining a Bachelor degree from Engineering and Technology
Universities, which offer two and a half to three year long courses for students
 with a Diploma -in-Engineering degree, to obtain a Bachelor degree
(undergraduate degree) (16th Grade) in Engineering. Then they can enroll for
post-graduate education.
Educational Management
The overall responsibility of management of primary education lies the Primary
and Mass Edeucation Division (PMED), set up as a separate division with the
status of a Ministry in 1992. While the PMED is involved in formulation of
policies, the responsibility of implementation rests with the Directorate of
 Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General.
The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) and its subordinate offices in the
districxt and Upazila are solely responsibile for management and supervision
of primary education. Their responsibilities include recruitment, posting, and
transfer of teachers and other staff; arranging in-service training of teachers,
distribution of free text books, and supervision of schools. The responsibility
of school construction, repair and supply of school furniture lies with the
Facilities Department(FD) and Local Government Engineering Department
(LGED). The national Council Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) are
responsible for the development of curriculum and production of textbooks.
Primary And Secondary Levels of
Education
The primary and secondary levels of education are controlled by the six
General Education Boards, each covering a region. The boards' headquarters
are located in Barisal, Comilla, Chittagong, Dhaka Jessore, Rajshahi and
Sylhet. In addition, the Madrasah Education Board covers religious education
in government-registered Madrasahs, and the Technical Education Board
controls technical and vocational training in
secondry level.Six region-based Boards of Intermediate and
Secondary Education (BISE) are resposible for conducting the two public
examination, SSC and HSC, in addition to granting recognition to
non-government secondary schools.
Tertiary  Education Management
civil Engineering department of  BUET, one of the leading institutions for
engineering in Bangladesh.At the tertiary level, universities are regulated
by the University Grants Commission. The colleges providing tertiary
education are under the National University. Each of the medical colleges
is affiliated with a public university. Universities in Bangladesh are
autonomous bodies administered vy satuary bodies such as Syndicate,
Senate, Academic Council, etc. in accordance with provisions laid down
in their respective acts.
Technical and Vocational Education
 Management
The Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) is responsible for the planning,
development and implementation of technical and vocational education in
the country. Curriculum is impleted byBTEB.
Top Engineering University In Bangladesh
1.             Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka
2.             Islamic University of Technology, Gazipur
3.             American International University-Bangladesh. Dhaka
4.             Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaks
5.             Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Gazipur
6.             Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet
7.             Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi
8.             Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Khulna
9.             Chittagong University of Engineering And Technology, Chittagong
10.          International Islamic University Chittagong, chittagong
11.          Independent University Bangladesh, Dhaka
12.          North South University, Dhaka
13.          BRAC University, Dhaka
14.          Technical Teachers Training College Tajgoan, Dhaka
Non-formal primary Education
There exists a substancial numberof NGO-runnon-formal schools, catering
mainly  to the drop-outs of the government and non-government primary
schools. Very few NGOs, however, impart education for the full five-year
primary education cycle. Because of this on completion of their two-to
three-year non-formal primary education in NGO-run schools students
normally re-enter into government/nongovernment primary schools at
higher classes.
For more information on Education in Bangladesh,You can download a brochure from here
 Tags:Education in Bangladesh,Bangladesh Education System,Foreign Education

Education in Haiti | Haiti Education System

EDUCATION IN HAITI
Education levels in Haiti are low. Haiti's education rate of about 53 percent (53

percent for males and 51 for females) falls well below the 90 percent average education  rate for Latin American and Caribbean countries. The country faces shortages in education supplies and qualified teachers and the rural population remains underrepresented in the country's classrooms without education .Currently, most Haitian  education providing schools are private rather than state-funded . International
private schools (run by Canada, France, or the United States.) and church run schools provide education to 90% of students.Haiti counts 15,200 primary schools of which 90% are non-public and managed by the communities, religious organizations or NGOs. The enrollnment rate for primary school is 67% of which less than 30% reach 6th grade. Secondary schools enroll 20%of eligible children. There is a List of schools in Haiti.The education system in Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.It is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. School attendence was 64% on 2000
HISTORY 
Under President Aristide some improvements were made. In 1997 the government passed a 10-year education plan, with the goal of universal access to quality schools. The national education budget increased from 9% to 22% in 2000. This paid for programs to provide school lunches, uniforms, and bus transpotation.Additionally in 2002 the government began a literacy campaign, facilitated by 30,000 literacy monitors and the distribution of 700,000 literacy manuals. Overall, school attendance rose from 20% in 1994 to 64% in 2000. After Haiti's2010 earthquake the President of Haiti gave the Inter-American Development Bank, IDB the mandate to work with the Education Ministry and the National Commission preparing a major reform of the Education system in a 5 year plan.
Higher Education
A list of Universities in Haiti includes :
Universite Caraibe(CUC) is providing educationUniversite d'Etat d'Haiti(UEH) is providing educationUniversite' Notre Dame d'Haiti (UNDH) is providing educationUniversite'Chretienne du Nord d' Haiti(UNCH) is providing educationUniversite' Lumiere/MEBSh is providing educationUniversite' Quisqueya (UNIQ) is providing educationUniversite' Roi Henri Christophe is providing educationUniversite Publique de l'Artibonite aux Gonaives (UPAG) is providing educationUniversite' Publique du Nord au Cap-Haiten(UPNCH) is providing educationUniversite' Publique du Sud au Cayes (UPSAC) is providing educationUniversite' Adventiste d'Haiti is providing education
For more information You can download a brochure    
Tags:Education in Haiti,Haiti Education System,Foreign Education

EDUCATION IN CHINA | EUCATION SYSTEM IN CHINA

EDUCATION IN CHINA

In the 1980's China's higher education achieved considerable progress. By the end of 1992, China had 1,075 full time institutions of higher education with 881,000 graduated and 1,320,000,000 undergraduates.So far, there are 1,700 research institutions for education of  natural sciences run by universities 220 research institutes and 540 research centers for education in  social sciences, 400 key disciplines and 99 national laboratories. It goes without saying that institutions of higher education  have been
playing as important role in China's scientific research.
China's universities fall under either the jurisdiction of the Ministry of 
Education, over ministries of the Central government, provides 
education in autonomous regions, municipalities or certain major cities. 
Universities and independent  institutions institutes are all institutions of 
higher education  and same footing.
In China, a strict entrance examination system has been introduced to view 
to ensuring the quality of  education for new entrants to universities.National 
entrance is open to graduates of senior middle schools.Only the best and 
brightest in terms of all round development of morality, intelligence and
physique can have access to higher  education.
The academic year of full time universities is separated into two semesters
9A few have three). The first semesters begins in September and second in 
February.Each semester has about 20 weeks  and has six school days. In 
addition to the mandatory winter and summer vacations, every 1 January 
students have a day-off, and 1 May (International Labour Day) and 1 October 
(National Day). Students have 7 day holidays.Universities operate normally 
on other anniversaries traditional fetes.
Students Life

Chinese students generally live in school dormitories and eat in the school 

cafeteria. A campus has many playgrounds with fully equipped facilities 

which are provided for the convenience of students for spare time sports 

activities. Apart from usual physical exercise, students have access to 

different sports events and competitions organized  by  universities, such 

as long distance running in winter, swimming in summer and ball games

and chess games.Students strong in sports can join their university teams 

of basketball, volleyball football etc. Fans of Wushu

9martial art) and Qigong will have teachers available for them. The annual

 sports games of each university provide students and teachers with 

chance to best demonstrate their talent in sports events.

The student union and organizations bring together many students of 

common interest who set up their chorus, dancing troupe, orchestra, 

photography association, calligraphy association, painting association, 

etc.They have regular activities. Students in the associations develop their

abilities and  give full play to their talents. Universities admitting  foreign 

students have established separate dormitories and canteens for them.

When conditions permit, foreign students can also share dormitories with

Chinese Students' canteens.

Universities have paid ample attention to extra-curricular activities for 

foreign students.They are organized to watch artistic performances and go

out for sightseeing for rest and recreation after intense studies. Foreign

students are welcome to attend the school's sports games, long distance

running competitions, swimming and ball games as well as other related 

activities of other student organizations.

Friendly exchanges in education between Chinese and foreign students

are encouraged and in particular, contact between Chinese and foreign 

youth. Universities often conduct seminars and parties for Chinese and 

foreign students and other social activities. Chinese students, with a strong 

interest in education  are hardworking and cherish their friendship with 

foreign  students  therefore they are eager to make friends with and share 

their times and bad. The students through contact with each other will

establish a profound friendship.

School Spirit in China's  Institutions of Higher Education

China's universities attach great importance to good school spirit. In many 

universities, a good school spirit is embodied by diligence, hardwork,

strictness, realism pioneering innovation and originality. Based on the 

characteristics of their specialties different universities accentuate 

education on specific aspects of school spirit. For instance medical 

universities install in their school spirit the concept of humanitarianism 

normal universities recommend the students to develop the spirit of 

sacrifice and be paragons of virtue and  education and universities of 

political science and law encourage the students to cultivate noble 

characters and to be upright and just, honest and faithful to the duties. 

Student Administration

Students are required by universities to complete registration procedures in 

time for their education in .Freshmen before acquiring the status as

 students are subject to re-examination.

China's universities check both students' attendance and achievement in

their education. Absence from class without any sound reason is 

prohibited. participation in examination specified by the teaching 

programme is obligatory.when students have completed all courses

offered in the programme and passed the examination they are entitled to

go up one grade. In universities where the credit system has been

introduced, a credit is obtained when any student passes the examination 

will repetition back to a  lower grade of discontinued of  according to school

regulations.

Students of good character and scholarships are rewarded commended 

and granted scholarship for their education by China's universities.

Any foreign student in China university is considered as an ordinary  

student and hence should abide by all the rules and regulations of the 

university.

ENTRY T O CHINA

Admission notice and visa application for students who want education in China

Admission notice

The institutions will send the Admission Notice to the IEC after enrolling the

candidates, The IEC will send the Admission Notice and Visa Application

for Foreigners Wishing to have education in China (JW201) to the embassy

in China or the Chinese embassy in the dispatching country,relevant 

dispatching  organization or the applicants. It is kindly requested  that 

authority concerned sent these two documents to the candidates in time.

Visa Application

According to the regulations of the Ministry of Public Security, foreign

students with Admission Notice and the Visa Application Form for Studying  

in  China(JW201) both delivered by the Chinese universities and Physical 

Examination Record for Foreigner, can submit applications to Chinese and 

embassies and consulates for visa within due terms for their education in

China.

Special Notice

The student for their education in should purchase medical insurance and 

personal security insurance before coming to China or after coming to 

China (depends upon the facilities provided by the universities).

If you would like your family members to accompany in China, you would 

have to get the approval of the university in advance and accommodation for 

family members is not available, for the usual practice in management in

university.
You can download brochure from here

Tags:Education in China, China Education system,Foriegn Education

EDUCATION IN FINLAND

Finland is one of the most progressive and advanced countries in Europe. Against a backdrop of incredible scenery, the "country of lakes" has recently attracted attention in the area of higher education. Ross Geraghty speaks to Ms. Maija Rask.Finish minister of Education and Science.
The Finnish Education System is highly advanced, by international standards. What was done to make education this way?

I am very proud of the education system and its performance. Our national strategy is based on a high level of education and R&D (research and development). We have made a special effort to boost the development of the necessary infrastructure and expertise so that we can meet the expectations of the emerging knowledge-based economy.
In the 1990's we implemented major reforms in our education system and carried out a special investment programme in R&D. Today, we spend nearly seven percent on the education system. These are very high figures by international standards, and the government is committed to continuing this policy.
Our higher education system is fairly large: we have 20 universities and 29 polytechnics, and 65 percent of the age group start studies at higher education institutions. These figures illustrate our commitment to raising the level of education of the whole population.
In Finland, polytechnics are newcomers to the higher education scene. The system was created some ten years ago with a view to raising the level of vocational education and training and to accommodating the needs of the increasingly heterogeneous student population. The polytechnics were formed from post-secondary vocational institutions, which were upgraded to higher education level after a pilot phase and a rigorous external evaluation. Today I  would say the polytechnics form an integral part of our high quality higher education system.

Have numbers of students coming to study in Finland increased over the years?

The first action to boost internationalisation in Finnish university education was decised at the end of the 1980's. At that time we were able to allocate extra funding to building up the administrative infrastructure needed to take care of both outgoing  and incoming programmes at universitiewsw and polytechnics. Today, i am very pleased to say that all our higher education institutions offer programmes in English for the benefit of international students.

Why do you think students consider Finland as a study destination?

I think the most important reason is the good quality of our education and R&D and the fields of expertise Finland is known for eg,ICT,pulp and paper, design, architecture and music to name but a few.
also the good provision of English-language programmes in our higher education institutions is attractive to international students as well as the low cost of in here.

What does the Ministry of Education do, or any other body, to accredit the universities and polytechnics in Finland and to keep standards high?

Universities and polytechnics are obliged by law to systematically evaluate their  quality and performance. The polytechnics underwent a kind of accrediation process when they sought a permanent operating licence from the government.
The Finnish higher education evaluation Council is an independent advisory body to thr Ministry of Education, and it promotes and supports evaluations and quality work in high education institutions. The ministry rewards the institutions for high -quality performance.

Would you say that Finnish universities are strong in the IT area?

Why do you think that is so inportant, and does it give you a strong edge over other countries?
Our universities and polytechnics are definitely very strong in the ICT fields. As i said earlier, the development of this area has been one of the cornerstones in our education and science and technology policies.Our ICT firms played a major role in helping the Finnish economy flourish after the difficult years of recession in the early 1990s, and i firmly believe that this technology -driven economic growth will continue.Therefore it is very important that out education system  keeps up with-or rather ahead of- the rapid developments in the field.

I think most of our international students are aware of the Finnish expertise in the ICT fields,and for many students that was what attracted them to Finland in the first place.

In short,what else does Finland have to offer the international student?

In a nutshell: high quality,good education,and research facilities,a smoothly-running student hosing system,English-language programmes,a beautiful language.It is also a cost-effective country.

EDUCATION IN JAPAN

The Japanese Educational System

The schooling years in the Japanese education system are segmented along the lines of 6-3-3-4: 6 years of primary or elementary school; 3 years of middle or junior high school; 3 years of high school; and 4 years of university.
However, the government has just announced (October 2005, Daily Yomiuri) that it is intending to make changes in the Education Law to allow schools to merge the 6-3 division between elementary and middle schools. The key purpose for this change is to allow elementary and middle schools to pool or share their resources, with special regard to making available specialist teachers of middle schools to elementary schools. 

Many private schools, however, offer a six year programme incorporating both junior high school and high school. Specialised schools may offer a five year programme comprising high school and two years of junior college. There are two options for tertiary education: junior college (two years) and university (four years). 

A school year has three terms: summer, winter and spring, which are each followed by a vacation period. The school year begins in April and ends in March of the following year.

An elementary school (from 6 years) and junior high school (3 years) education, i.e. nine years of schooling are considered compulsory (see pages on legality of homeschooling).

This system, implemented by the School Education Law enacted in March 1947 after WWII, owes its origin to the American model 6-3-3 plus 4 years of university. Many other features of the Japanese educational system, are however, based on European models.

Compulsory education covers elementary school and junior high school. A break from the past, modern public schools in Japan today are mostly co-ed(more than 99% of elementary schools). The Japanese school year begins in April and students attend school for three terms except for brief spring and winter breaks and a one month long summer holiday.


Educational Reform & Other Current Issues

More than 90% of all students graduate from high school and 40% from university or junior college. 100 % of all students complete elementary school and Japan is repeatedly said to have achieved 100% literacy and to have the highest literacy rate in the world since the Edo period.

The Japanese educational system has been highly regarded by many countries and has been studied closely for the secrets to the success of its system, especially in the years before the economic bubble burst. However, following the bursting of the bubble and the ensuing decade of recession, a number of issues have come under scrutiny both at home and abroad. 

EDUCATION IN MEXICON STATES

WELCOME TO EDUCATIONSRV

Mexico, in full UNITED MEXICAN STATES (Spanish Estados Unidos Mexicanos), federal republic in North America, bounded on the north by the United States; on the east by the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea; on the south by Belize and Guatemala; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Mexican federal jurisdiction extends, in addition to Mexico proper, over a number of offshore islands. The area of the country is 1,958,201 sq km (756,066 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Mexico City.
Most of Mexico is an immense, elevated plateau, flanked by mountain ranges that fall sharply off to narrow coastal plains in the west and east. The two mountain chains, the Sierra Madre Occidental to the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental in the east, meet in a region called La Junta in the southeast. At La Junta the two ranges form the Sierra Madre del Sur, a maze of volcanic mountains containing the highest peaks in Mexico (see SIERRA MADRE). The Sierra Madre del Sur leads into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, which lies between the Bay of Campeche and the Gulf of Tehuantepec.
The prominent topographical feature of the country is the central plateau, a continuation of the plains of the southwestern United States. Comprising more than half the total area of Mexico, the plateau slopes downward from the west to the east and from the south, where the elevation varies from about 1830 to 2440 m (about 6000 to 8000 ft) above sea level, to the north with an elevation of about 1070 to 1220 m (about 3500 to 4000 ft). Two large valleys form notable depressions in the plateau: the Bolsón de Mapimí in the north and the Valley of Mexico, or Anahuac, in central Mexico.
The coastal plains are generally low, flat, and sandy, although the Pacific coast is occasionally broken by mountain spurs. Baja California, a long, narrow peninsula extending about 1225 km (some 760 mi) south from the northwestern corner of the country, is traversed by mountains that are a continuation of the coastal ranges in the U.S. state of California. The Yucatan Peninsula, which forms the southeastern tip of the country, is low and flat, averaging about 30 m (about 100 ft) in elevation.

HUMBOLDT UNIVERSITY

The Humboldt University of Berlin is Berlin's oldest university  founded in 1810 as
the university of Berlin by the liberal Prussian educational reformer and linguist 
Wilhelm von Humboldt, whose university model has strongly influenced other
European and Western universities. From 1828 it was known as the Fredrick 
William University. Later(unofficially) also as the universitat under den Linden after its
location.

EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

         Education in Russia: Education in Russia is provided predominantly by the state and is regulated by the federal Ministry of Education and Science. Regional authorities regulate

education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. In 2004 state spending for education amounted to 3.6% of GDP, or 13% of consolidated state budget.Private institutions account for 1% of pre-school enrollment, 0.5% of elementary school enrollment and 17% of university-level students.

Before 1990 the course of school training in Soviet Union was 10-years, but at the end of 1990 the 11-year course has been officially entered. Education in state-owned secondary schools is free; firsttertiary (university level) education is free with reservations: a substantial share of students is enrolled for full pay. Male and female students have nearly equal shares in all stages of education, except tertiary education where women lead with 57%.

The literacy rate in Russia, according to the 2002 census, is 99.4% (99.7% men, 99.2% women).^[7]16.0% of population over 15 years of age (17.6 million) have tertiary (undergraduate level or higher) education; 47.7% have completed secondary education (10 or 11 years); 26.5% have completedmiddle school (8 or 9 years) and 8.1% have elementary education. Highest rates of tertiary education, 24.7% are recorded among women aged 35–39 years (compared to 19.5% for men of the same age bracket.

 PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION

 According to the 2002 census, 68% of children (78% urban and 47% rural) aged 5 are enrolled in kindergartens. According to UNESCO data, enrollment in any kind of pre-school program increased from 67% in 1999 to 84% in 2005.

Kindergartens, unlike schools, are regulated by regional and local authorities. The Ministry of Education and Science regulates only a brief pre-school preparation program for the 5–6 year old children. In 2004 the government attempted to charge full cost of kindergartens to the parents; widespread public opposition caused a reversal of policy. Currently, local authorities can legally charge the parents not more than 20% of cost. Twins, children of college students, refugees, Chernobyl veterans and other protected social groups are entitled to free service.^[12]
The Soviet system provided for nearly universal primary (nursery, age 1 to 3) and kindergarten (age 3 to 7) service in urban areas, relieving working mothers from daytime child care needs. By 1980s there were 88,000 preschool institutions; as the secondary education study load increased and moved from ten to eleven-year standard, the kindergarten programs shifted from training basic social skills and physical abilities to preparation for the school. After the collapse of the Soviet Union the number decreased to 46,000; kindergarten buildings were sold as real estate, irreversibly rebuilt and converted for office use. At the same time, a minority share of successful state-owned kindergartens, regarded as a vertical lift to quality schooling, flourished throughout the 1990s. Privately owned kindergartens, although in high demand, did not gain a significant share due to administrative pressure; share of children enrolled in private kindergartens dropped from 7% in 1999 to 1% in 2005.
The improvement of the economy after the 1998 crisis, coupled with historical demographic peak, resulted in an increase in birth rate, first recorded in 2005. Large cities encountered shortage of kindergarten vacancies earlier, in 2002. Moscow's kindergarten waiting list included 15 thousand children; in the much smaller city of Tomsk (population 488 thousand) it reached 12 thousand. The city of Moscow instituted specialized kindergarten commissions that are tasked with locating empty slots for the children; parents sign their children on the waiting list as soon as they are born. The degree of the problem varies between districts, e.g. Moscow's Fili-Davydkovo District (population 78 thousand) has lost all of its kindergartens (residents have to compete for kindergarten slots elsewhere) while Zelenograd claims to have short queue. Independent authors assert that bribes or "donations" for admission to kindergartens compete in amount with university admissions while authorities refute the accusation.

 SECONDARY SCHOOL

General framework

There were 59,260 general education schools in 2007–2008 school year, an increase from 58,503 in the previous year. However, prior to 2005–2006, the number of schools was steadily decreasing from 65,899 in 2000–2001. The 2007–2008 number includes 4,965 advanced learning schools specializing in foreign languages, mathematics etc.; 2,347 advanced general-purpose schools, and 1,884 schools for all categories of disabled children; it does not include vocational technical school and technicums. Private schools accounted for 0.3% of elementary school enrolment in 2005 and 0.5% in 2005.
According to a 2005 UNESCO report, 96% of the adult population has completed lower secondary schooling and most of them also have an upper secondary education.
Eleven-year secondary education in Russian is compulsory since September 1, 2007. Until 2007, it was limited to nine years with grades 10-11 optional; federal subjects of Russia could enforce higher compulsory standard through local legislation within the eleven–year federal program. Moscow enacted compulsory eleven–year education in 2005, similar legislation existed in Altai Krai, Sakha and Tyumen Oblast. A student of 15 to 18 years of age may drop out of school with approval of his/her parent and local authorities, and without their consent upon reaching age of 18. Expulsion from school for multiple violations disrupting school life is possible starting at the age of 15.
The eleven-year school term is split into elementary (grades 1-4), middle (grades 5-9) and senior (grades 10-11) classes. Absolute majority of children attend full program schools providing eleven-year education; schools limited to elementary or elementary and middle classes typically exist in rural areas. Of 59,260 schools in Russia, 36,248 provide full eleven-year program, 10,833 - nine-year "basic" (elementary and middle) program, and 10,198 - elementary education only. Their number is disproportionately large compared to their share of students due to lesser class sizes in rural schools. In areas where school capacity is insufficient to teach all students on a normal, morning to afternoon, schedule, authorities resort to double shift schools were two streams of students (morning shift and evening shift) share the same facility. There were 13,100 double shift and 75triple shift schools in 2007-2008, compared to 19,201 and 235 in 2000-2001.
Children are accepted to first grade at the age of 6 or 7, depending on individual development of each child. Until 1990, starting age was set at seven years and schooling lasted ten years (all compulsory). The switch from ten to eleven-year term was motivated by continuously increasing load in middle and senior grades. In 1960s, it resulted in a "conversion" of the fourth grade from elementary to middle school. Decrease in elementary schooling led to greater disparity between children entering middle school; to compensate for the "missing" fourth grade, elementary schooling was extended with a "zero grade" for six-year-olds. This move remains a subject of controversy.
Children of elementary classes are normally separated from other classes within their own floor of a school building. They are taught, ideally, by a single teacher through all four elementary grades (except for physical training and, if available, foreign languages); 98.5% of elementary school teachers are women. Their number decreased from 349,000 in 1999 to 317,000 in 2005. Starting from the fifth grade, each academic subject is taught by a dedicated specialty teacher (80.4% women in 2004, an increase from 75.4% in 1991). Pupil-to-teacher ratio (11:1) is on par with developed European countries. Teachers' average monthly salaries in 2008 range from 6,200 roubles (260 US dollars) in Mordovia to 21,000 roubles (900 US dollars) in Moscow.
The school year extends from September 1 to end of May and is divided into four terms. Study program in schools is fixed; unlike in some Western countries, schoolchildren or their parents have no choice of study subjects. Class load per student (638 hours a year for nine-year-olds, 893 for thirteen-year-olds) is lower than in Chile, Peru or Thailand, although official hours are frequently appended with additional classwork. Students are graded on a 5-step scale, ranging in practice from 2 ("unacceptable") to 5 ("excellent"); 1 is a rarely used sign of extreme failure. Teachers regularly subdivide these grades (i.e. 4+, 5-) in daily use, but term and year results are graded strictly 2, 3, 4 or 5

Vocational training option

Upon completion of a nine-year program the student has a choice of either completing the remaining two years at normal school, or of a transfer to a specialized professional training school. Historically, those were divided into low-prestige PTU's and better-regarded technicums and medical (nurse level) schools; in 2000s, many such institutions, if operational, have been renamed to colleges. They provide students with a working skill qualification and a high school certificate equivalent to 11-year education in a normal school; the program, due to its work training component, extends to 3 years. In 2007–2008 there were 2,800 such institutions with 2,28 million students. Russian vocational schools, like the Tech Prep schools in the USA, fall out of ISCED classification, thus the enrollment number reported by UNESCO is lower, 1.41 million; the difference is attributed to senior classes of technicums that exceed secondary education standard.
All certificates of secondary education (Russian), regardless of issuing institution, conform to the same state standard and are considered, at least by law, to be fully equivalent. The state prescribes minimum (and nearly exhaustive) set of study subjects that must appear in each certificate. In practice, extension of study terms to three years disadvantages vocational schools' male students who intend to continue: they reach conscription age before graduation or immediately after it, and normally must serve in the army before applying to undergraduate-level institutions.

Unified state examinations

Traditionally, the universities and institutes conducted their own admissions tests regardless of the applicants' school record. There were no uniform measure of graduates' abilities; marks issued by high schools were perceived as incompatible due to grading variances between schools and regions. In 2003 the Ministry of Education launched the Unified state examination (USE) program. The set of standardized tests for high school graduates, issued uniformly throughout the country and rated independent of the student's schoolmasters, akin to North American SAT, was supposed to replace entrance exams to state universities. Thus, the reformers reasoned, the USE will empower talented graduates from remote locations to compete for admissions at the universities of their choice, at the same time eliminating admission-related bribery, then estimated at 1 billion US dollars annually. In 2003, 858 university and college workers were indicted for bribery, admission "fee" in MGIMO allegedly reached 30,000 US dollars.
University heads, notably Moscow State University rector Viktor Sadovnichiy, resisted the novelty, arguing that their schools cannot survive without charging the applicants with their own entrance hurdles. Nevertheless, the legislators enacted USE in February 2007. In 2008 it was mandatory for the students and optional for the universities; it is fully mandatory since 2009.^[35] A few higher education establishments are still allowed to introduce their own entrance tests in addition to USE scoring; such tests must be publicized in advance.
Awarding USE grades involves two stages. In this system, a "primary grade" is the sum of points for completed tasks, with each of the tasks having a maximum number of points allocated to it. The maximum total primary grade varies by subject, so that one might obtain, for instance, a primary grade of 23 out of 37 in mathematics and a primary grade of 43 out of 80 in French. The primary grades are then converted into final or "test grades" by means of a sophisticated statistical calculation, which takes into account the distribution of primary grades among the examinees. This system has been criticized for its lack of transparency.
The first nation-wide USE session covering all regions of Russia was held in the summer of 2008. 25.3% students failed literature test, 23.5% failed mathematics; the highest grades were recorded in French, English and society studies. Twenty thousand students filed objections against their grades; one third of objections were settled in the student's favor.^[36]

EDUCATION FOR THE DISABLED

Physical disability

Children with physical disabilities, depending on the nature, extent of disability and availability of local specialized institutions, attend either such institutions or special classes within regular schools. As of 2007, there were 80 schools for the blind and the children with poor eyesight; their school term is extended to 12 years and classes are limited to 9-12 pupils per teacher. Education for the deaf is provided by 99 specialized kindergartens and 207 secondary boarding schools; children who were born deaf are admitted to specialized kindergartens as early as possible, ideally from 18 months of age; they are schooled separately from children who lost hearing after acquiring basic speech skills. Vocational schools for the working deaf people who have not completed secondary education exist in five cities only. Another wide network of specializes institutions takes care of children with mobility disorders. 60-70% of all children with cerebral palsy are schooled through this channel. Children are admitted to specializes kindergartens at three or four years of age and are streamed into narrow specialty groups; the specialization continues throughout their school term that may extend to thirteen years. The system, however, is not ready to accept children who also display evident developmental disability; they have no other option than home schooling. All graduates of physical disability schools are entitled to the same level of secondary education certificates as normal graduates.
There are 42 specialized vocational training (non-degree) colleges for disabled people; most notable are the School of Music for the Blind in Kursk and Medical School for the Blind in Kislovodsk. Fully segregated undergraduate education is provided by two colleges: the Institute of Arts for the Disabled (enrollment of 158 students in 2007) and the Social Humanitarian Institute (enrollment of 250 students), both in Moscow. Other institutions provide semi-segregated training (specialized groups within normal college environment) or declare full disability access of their regular classes. Bauman Moscow State Technical University and Chelyabinsk State University have the highest number of disabled students (170 each, 2007). Bauman University focuses on education for the deaf; Herzen Pedagogical Institute enroll different groups of physical disability. However, independent studies assert that the universities fail to integrate people with disabilities into their academic and social life.
 Mental disability
An estimated 20% of children leaving kindergarten fail to adjust to elementary school requirements and are in need of special schooling. Children with delayed development who may return to normal schools and study along with normal children are trained at compensatory classes within regular schools. The system is intended to prepare these children for normal school at the earliest possible age, closing (compensating) the gap between them and normal students. It is a relatively new development that began in 1970s and gained national approval in 1990s.
Persistent but mild mental disabilities that precludes co-education with normal children in foreseeable future but does not qualify as moderate, heavy or severe retardation requires specializedcorrection (Russian: коррекционные) boarding schools and extends from 8–9 to 18–21 years of age. Their task is to adapt the person to living in a modern society, rather than to subsequent education.
Children with stronger forms of intellectual disability are, as of 2008, mostly excluded from the education system. Some are trained within severe disability groups of the correction boarding schools and orphanages, others are aided only through counseling.
Tertiary (university level) education
According to a 2005 UNESCO report, more than half of the Russian adult population has attained a tertiary education, which is twice as high as the OECD average.
As of the 2007–2008 academic year, Russia had 8.1 million students enrolled in all forms of tertiary education (including military and police institutions and postgraduate studies). Foreign students accounted for 5.2% of enrollment, half of whom were from other CIS countries.^[50] 6.2 million students were enrolled in 658 state-owned and 450 private civilian university-level institutions licensed by the Ministry of Education; total faculty reached 625 thousands in 2005.
The number of state-owned institutions was rising steadily from 514 in 1990 to 655 in 2002 and remains nearly constant since 2002. The number of private institutions, first reported as 193 in 1995, continues to rise. Andrei Fursenko, Minister of Education, is campaigning for a reduction in number of institutions to weed out diploma mills and substandard colleges; in April 2008 his stance was approved by president Dmitry Medvedev: "This amount, around a thousand universities and two thousands spinoffs, does not exist anywhere else in the world; it may be over the top even for China ... consequences are clear: devaluation of education standard". Even supporters of the reduction like Yevgeny Yasin admit that the move will strengthen consolidation of academia in Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Novosibirsk and devastate the provinces, leaving the federal subjects of Russia without colleges for training local school teachers.
The trend for consolidation began in 2006 when state universities and colleges of Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog and other southern towns were merged into Southern Federal University, based in Rostov-on-Don; a similar conglomerate was formed in Krasnoyarsk as Siberian Federal University; the third one is likely to emerge in Vladivostok as Far Eastern Federal University. Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University acquired the federal university status in 2007 without further organizational changes.

Traditional model

Historically, civilian tertiary education was divided between a minority of traditional wide curriculum universities and a larger number of narrow specialisation institutes (including art schools). Specific-field institutes (e.g. Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography) concentrated primarily in Moscow and Saint Petersburg; medical and teachers' institutes were scattered more evenly across the territory. Medical profession historically developed within universities, but was separated from them in 1918 and remains separate as of 2008. Legal education in Russia exists within universities and as standalone law institutes such as the Academic Law University (Russian: Академический правовой университет, АПУ) founded under the auspices of the Institute of State and Law. In the 1990s many technical institutes and new private schools created their own departments of law; as of 2008, law departments trained around 750 thousands students. Selected narrow-field institutes thrived in remote regions due to their unique geographical placement (maritime and fishing colleges in seaport towns, mining and metallurgy institutes in ore-rich territories, etc.). In 1990s the institutes typically renamed themselves universities, while retaining their historical narrow specialization. More recently, a number of these new private 'universities' have been renamed back to 'institutes' to reflect their narrower specialization. Thus, for instance, the Academic Law University has recently (2010) been renamed to the Academic Law Institute.
Unlike the United States or Bologna process model, there was no division into undergraduate (BSc/BA) and graduate (MSc/MA) levels; tertiary education always fitted into a single stage resulting in specialist degree. It took five to six years to complete; specialist degrees of selected high-ranking institutions were perceived equal to Western MSc/MA qualification. A specialist graduate needed no further academic qualification to pursue a real–world career, with the exception of some (but not all) branches of medical professions that required a post-graduate residency stage. Military college education lasted four years and was ranked as equivalent to specialist degree.
In narrow specialization institutes the student's specialization within a chosen department was fixed upon admission, and moving between different streams within the same department was problematic. Study programs were (and still are) rigidly fixed for the whole term of study; the students have little choice in planning their academic progress. Mobility between institutions with compatible study programs was allowed infrequently, usually due to family relocation from town to town.

Move towards Bologna Process

Russia is in the process of migrating from its traditional tertiary education model, incompatible with existing Western academic degrees, to a modernized degree structure in line with Bologna Process model. (Russia co-signed the Bologna Declaration in 2003.) In October 2007 Russia enacted a law that replaces the traditional five-year model of education with a two-tiered approach: a four-year bachelor (Russian) degree followed by a two-year master's (Russian) degree.
The move has been criticized for its merely formal approach: instead of reshaping their curriculum, universities would simply insert a BSc/BA accreditation in the middle of their standard five or six-year programs. The job market is generally unaware of the change and critics predict that a stand-alone BSc/BA diplomas will not be recognized as "real" university education in the foreseeable future, rendering the degree unnecessary and undesirable without further specialization. Institutions like MFTI or MIFI have practiced two-tier breakdown of their specialist programs for decades and switched to Bologna process designations well in advance of the 2007 law, but an absolute majority of their students complete all six years of MSc/MA (formerly specialist) curriculum, regarding BSc/BA stage as useless in real life.
Student mobility among universities has been traditionally discouraged and thus kept at very low level; there are no signs that formal acceptance of Bologna process will help students seeking better education. Finally, while the five-year specialist training was previously free to all students, the new MSc/MA stage is not. The shift forces students to pay for what was free to the previous class; the cost is unavoidable because the BSc/BA degree alone is considered useless. Defenders of Bolognaprocess argue that the final years of the specialist program were formal and useless: academic schedules were relaxed and undemanding, allowing students to work elsewhere. Cutting the five-yearspecialist program to a four-year BSc/BA will not decrease the actual academic content of most of these programs.
Post-graduate levels
Postgraduate diploma structure so far retains its unique Soviet pattern established in 1934. The system makes a distinction between scientific degrees, evidencing personal postgraduate achievement in scientific research, and related but separate academic titles, evidencing personal achievement in university-level education.
There are two successive postgraduate degrees: kandidat nauk (Candidate of science) and doktor nauk (Doctor of science). Both are a certificate of scientific, rather than academic, achievement, and must be backed up by original/novel scientific work, evidenced by publications in peer-reviewed journals and a dissertation defended in front of senior academic board. The titles are issued by Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education. A degree is always awarded in one of 23 predetermined fields of science, even if the underlying achievement belongs to different fields. Thus it is possible to defend two degrees of kandidat independently, but not simultaneously; adoktor in one field may also be a kandidat in a different field.
Kandidat nauk can be achieved within university environment (when the university is engaged in active research in the chosen field), specialised research facilities or within research and development units in industry. Typical kandidat nauk path from admission to diploma takes 2–4 years. The dissertation paper should contain a solution of an existing scientific problem, or a practical proposal with significant economical or military potential.^[56] The title is perceived as equivalent to Western Ph.D..
Doktor nauk, the next stage, implies achieving significant scientific output. This title is often equated to the German or Scandinavian habilitation. The dissertation paper should summarize the author's research resulting in theoretical statements that are qualified as a new discovery, or solution of an existing problem, or a practical proposal with significant economical or military potential. The road from kandidat to doktor typically takes 10 years of dedicated research activity; one in four candidates reaches this stage. The system implies that the applicants must work in their research field full time; however, the degrees in social sciences are routinely awarded to active politicians.
Academic titles of dotsent and professor are issued to active university staff who already achieved degrees of kandidat or doktor; the rules prescribe minimum residency term, authoring established study textbooks in their chosen field, and mentoring successful postgraduate trainees; special, less formal rules apply to professors of arts.
Military postgraduate education radically falls out of the standard scheme. It is provided by the military academies; unlike their Western namesakes, they are postgraduate institutions. Passing the course of an academy does not result in an explicitly named degree (although may be accompanied by a research for kandidat nauk degree) and enables the graduate to proceed to a certain level of command (equivalent of battalion commander and above).